• HIV and AIDS

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    Human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency sydrome

    Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes damage to your immune system, affecting your ability to fight disease. Without treatment, some people with HIV develop the potentially life-threatening condition, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

    Key points

    1. HIV is the name of the virus that causes an infection that damages your immune system and weakens your ability to fight infection and disease.
    2. Left untreated, HIV can cause AIDS – the most advanced stage of HIV infection. This means that you can be infected with HIV (a virus) without having AIDS (an illness).  
    3. A person with AIDS has a severe deficiency of their immune system, which increases their risk of severe infections.  
    4. HIV is a sexually transmitted infection and can also be spread by sharing needles.
    5. While there is no cure for HIV, it can be controlled with a combination of medicines, known as antiretroviral therapy (ART). Most people living with HIV who are on ART will never develop AIDS.


    Image credit: AIDS Info 

    How is HIV spread? (based on germ theory)

    HIV is found in some of the body fluids of an infected person, such as semen, vaginal and anal fluids, blood and breast milk. It can be spread by having unprotected sex (without a condom) with an infected person or by sharing infected needles and other injecting equipment. It can also be passed on from a mother to her baby during pregnancy and delivery.

    You can’t become infected through ordinary day-to-day contact such as kissing, hugging, shaking hands or from sharing personal objects, food or water. 

    Who is at risk of HIV?

    Behaviours and conditions that put individuals at greater risk of contracting HIV
    Having unprotected anal or vaginal sex.Having another sexually transmitted infection (STI) such as syphilis, herpes, chlamydia, gonorrhoea or bacterial vaginosis.Sharing contaminated needles, syringes and other injecting equipment and drug solutions when injecting drugs.Receiving unsafe injections, blood transfusions and tissue transplantation, and medical procedures that involve unsterile cutting or piercing.Experiencing accidental needle-stick injuries, a risk particularly for healthcare workers.

    What are the stages of HIV?

    When people get HIV and don’t receive treatment, they usually progress through 3 stages of disease.

    • Stage 1 – acute HIV infection
    • Stage 2 – clinical latency (HIV inactivity or dormancy)
    • Stage 3 – acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

    Medicine to treat HIV, known as antiretroviral therapy (ART), helps people at all stages of the disease if taken as prescribed. Treatment can slow or prevent progression from one stage to the next.

    People with HIV who take HIV medicine as prescribed and get and keep an undetectable viral load have effectively no risk of transmitting HIV to an HIV-negative partner through sex. Read more about the stages of HIV infection.

    How do I know if I have HIV?

    The only way to know for sure whether you have HIV is to get tested. Knowing your status is important because it helps you make healthy decisions to prevent getting or transmitting HIV. If HIV infection is found in your blood, you are said to be HIV positive.

    How often you should get tested (the frequency of testing) depends on who you have sex with and what type of sex you have. Use the ‘Testing frequency calculator‘ (NZ AIDS Foundation) to get a recommendation on how often you should be tested. 

    If you think you may have been exposed to HIV, you can use the ‘Been exposed tool‘ (NZ AIDS Foundation) to find out the likely risk of a specific event or encounter. If you were at risk of HIV exposure you will also get a recommendation for next steps. 

    • If you think you may have been exposed to HIV, your doctor, Family Planning clinic, sexual health clinic or the New Zealand AIDS Foundation can arrange a blood test. The result is confidential.
    • If your first test suggests you have HIV, a further blood test will needed to confirm the result.
    • If this is positive, you’ll be referred to a specialist HIV clinic for some more tests and a discussion about your treatment options. 
    • There is a short period just after being infected with HIV when the virus cannot be detected. If you have been exposed to HIV, you may need a follow-up test 3 months later.  
    • Note: HIV is a notifiable disease which means that it is a legal responsibility for your healthcare provider to notify public health authorities of a HIV positive result. In the notification, you will not identified by name or address (it is anonymous).  

    How is HIV treated?

    While there is no cure for HIV, it can be controlled with a combination of medicines, known as antiretroviral therapy (ART). These work by stopping the virus replicating (spreading) in your body, allowing your immune system to repair itself and preventing further damage. Taking these medicines can reduce the amount of virus in your body and help you stay healthy, and can also help prevent you passing the virus on to others.

    You will also be encouraged to have regular exercise, eat a healthy diet, stop smoking and have the flu vaccine every year to lessen the risk of getting serious illnesses. Without treatment, your immune system will become severely damaged and life-threatening illnesses such as cancer and severe infections can occur. Read more about antiretroviral therapy.

    How can I prevent HIV infection?

    There are a few things you can do to protect yourself from HIV.

    • Practice safe sex: Using condoms and water-based lubricant correctly every time you have vaginal or anal sex reduces the risk of getting HIV by around 95%. In New Zealand, HIV is most commonly caught by having unprotected sex with an infected person.  
    • Don’t share needles: If you inject yourself with drugs, it’s important to use new needles and syringes. Blood is left on syringes and needles every time they’re used. If you share injecting equipment, you can catch HIV from another person’s blood if they are infected.
    • Have HIV antenatal screening: Women with HIV can pass it on to their babies during pregnancy, birth and while breastfeeding. If you’re pregnant, you’ll be offered a screening test for HIV at the same time as you have your other blood tests, as a routine part of your antenatal care. The screening programme is run by the National Screening Unit. If you’re found to have HIV, you’ll be offered treatment that reduces the chance of your baby becoming infected from about 25% to less than 2%.
    • Use pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP): This is an HIV prevention method for people who do not have HIV but who are at risk. By taking a pill every day you can reduce your risk of becoming infected with HIV. Read more about PrEP.
    • Use post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP): This is an emergency medication for people who do not have HIV but are likely to have been exposed to the disease (eg, from a needle-stick injury or sexual assault). 

    If you are HIV positive, you can take precautions to avoid spreading the infection to others.

    • Take your antivirals. It can suppress your viral load to being undetectable and there is almost no risk of sexual transmission if your viral load stays undetectable. 
    • Tell your sex partner or partners about your relevant behaviour and whether you are HIV-positive. Read more about partner notification.
    • Follow safer sex practices, such as using condoms. Read more about safer sex 101 for HIV.
    • Don’t donate blood, plasma, semen, body organs or body tissues.
    • Don’t share personal items, such as toothbrushes, razors or sex toys, that may be contaminated with blood, semen or vaginal fluids.

    Learn more

    All about testing NZ AIDS Foundation 
    Partner notification and contact tracing NZSHS
    Living well with HIV     NZ AIDS Foundation 
    NZ AIDS Foundation     Information and support
    HIV/AIDS Ministry of Health, NZ
    HIV Healthy Sex, NZ
    Body Positive NZ

    References

    1. HIV basics Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 
    2. General practitioners and HIV Australasian Society for HIV, Viral Hepatitis and Sexual Health Medicine (ASHM), 2020

    Reviewed by

    Dr Li-Wern Yim is a travel doctor with a background in general practice. She studied medicine at the University of Otago, and has a postgraduate diploma in travel medicine (Otago). She also studied tropical medicine in Uganda and Tanzania, and holds a diploma from the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. She currently works in clinical travel medicine in Auckland.

  • COLD SORES

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    Image credit: Canva

    An infection outbreak has four stages:

    1. A tingling feeling in the skin.
    2. Over the next 48 hours, you may notice slight swelling of the area and then the development of a number of fluid-filled blisters, which are often painful.
    3. Over the next few days, the blisters burst and form clusters leaving fluid-filled sores.
    4. After 8–10 days, the sores eventually dry, scab over and heal without scarring. This stage can be irritating and painful.

    You are contagious from the moment you first feel tingling or other signs of a cold sore coming on until the cold sores are completely covered by dry scabs.

    What is the treatment for cold sores?

    For most people with just one or two blisters on their lip or near their nose, keeping the blister clean, dry and leaving it alone are all that is needed. Below are some tips that can help with healing.

    • Use sunblock lip balm (SPF 15 or above) if you’re outside in the sun.
    • Cold sore patches can protect the skin while it heals.
    • Ice, held against the blisters, or a warm wash cloth may help ease any pain.
    • Avoid acidic or salty food if it makes your cold sore feel worse.
    • Rinse your mouth with salt water or a pain relieving mouthwash.
    • You can buy an antiviral cream called aciclovir from your Pharmacy. Read more about aciclovir cream.
    • A kanuka honey based cream called Honeva is also available and has been shown to be as effective as aciclovir for treating cold sores. 
    • Take pain relief such as paracetamol or ibuprofen.

    How can I prevent spreading cold sores to other people?

    Hygiene is important for people infected with the herpes virus. To help prevent it spreading: 

    • do not kiss anyone while you have a cold sore, especially babies
    • do not share anything that comes into contact with a cold sore (such as cold sore creams, towels, cutlery or lipstick)
    • do not have oral sex until your cold sore completely heals as you could give your partner genital herpes
    • do not touch your cold sores – if you do, wash your hands.

    When to see your GP

    See your GP if:

    • the cold sore has not started to heal within 10 days
    • you have an infection near the eye
    • you’re worried about a cold sore or think it might be something else
    • the cold sore is very large or painful
    • you have swollen, painful gums and sores in the mouth (gingivostomatitis)
    • you have a weakened immune system – for example, because of chemotherapy or diabetes.

    If the cold sores are very large, painful or keep coming back, your GP may give you an antiviral treatment like valaciclovir.

    Can cold sores come back?

    The herpes simplex virus remains hidden in your nerves for the rest of your life. It can become active again from time to time causing a cold sore. This will usually show up in the same places where you may have had a previous infection. Most people don’t get more than one recurrence of cold sores per year, but about 5–10% of people experience 6 or more episodes per year. Situations that trigger the virus to become active include a fever (eg, a common cold), menstruation, trauma, UV radiation (exposure to sunlight), extreme tiredness or lowered immune function.

    Self-care

    Some things you can do to take care of yourself when you have a cold sore include:

    • Taking care to prevent the spread of the virus though good hygiene
    • Avoiding anything that triggers your cold sores
    • Using sunblock lip balm if you’re outside in the sun
    • Using treatments to help ease pain and swelling.

    Learn more

    The following links provide further information about cold sores. Be aware that websites from other countries may have information that differs from Aotearoa New Zealand recommendations.

    Facial herpes     The NZ Herpes Foundation
    Cold sores NHS Choices, UK

    References

    1. Valaciclovir – a first line antiviral medicine BPAC, NZ, 2016
    2. Herpes simplex. DermNet NZ
    3. Antiviral preparations NZ Formulary
    4. Semprini A, Singer J, Braithwaite I, Shortt N, Thayabaran D, McConnell M, Weatherall M, Beasley R. Kanuka honey versus aciclovir for the topical treatment of herpes simplex labialis – a randomised controlled trial BMJ Open. 2019 May 14;9(5):e026201

  • HEPATITIS C

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    Hepatitis C (pokenga huaketo) is a viral infection that causes inflammation of your liver. A medicine called Maviret will cure the condition for most people.

    On this page, you can find the following information:

    Key points

    1. The hepatitis C virus is carried in blood and can only be passed to someone through blood-to-blood contact. This happens when the blood of an infected person enters the bloodstream of an uninfected person. The most common way this occurs is through sharing needles.
    2. Testing is available through regional testing sites.
    3. Most people with hepatitis C can be cured with an antiviral medicine called Maviret. It has a cure rate of more than 90% with 8 weeks treatment for most people.
    4. Hepatitis C is the most common preventable cause of liver disease in New Zealand and is the leading cause of liver transplantation. 
    5. There is currently no vaccine to prevent hepatitis C, so avoiding blood-to-blood contact is the best way of preventing infection.

    Image credit: Te Whatu Ora

    Short-term (acute) and long-term (chronic) hepatitis C

    Acute hepatitis C refers to the first few months after someone is infected. Many people do not know they have hepatitis C as most do not feel sick when first infected. About 1 in 5 people who become infected clear the hepatitis C virus without needing treatment. The rest go on to have chronic hepatitis C infection.

    Chronic hepatitis C occurs if acute hepatitis infection is not cleared. Over time, chronic hepatitis C can result in liver disease (fibrosis and cirrhosis), liver cancer and liver failure. This is made worse by alcohol or cannabis use, obesity, age and reduced immunity. Chronic hepatitis C can be treated and most people cured.

    Who is at risk of getting hepatitis C?

    Those at risk of getting hepatitis C include people who:

    • share needles or other equipment to inject drugs
    • received a blood transfusion before 1992
    • have had tattoos or body piercing, especially in unlicensed facilities or with unsterile equipment
    • have had a needle stick injury in the course of their work, such as health professionals who have been accidentally pierced with a used needle
    • have lived in, or received healthcare, in South East Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East or Eastern Europe
    • have been in prison and used unsterile needles or been involved in unsafe tattooing practice
    • have lived in close contact with a person diagnosed with hepatitis C
    • were born to a mother with hepatitis C (low risk of transmission).

    While sexual transmission of hepatitis C is rare, it is possible. Having a sexually transmitted disease or HIV, sex with multiple partners or rough sex appears to increase a person’s risk for hepatitis C.

    What are the symptoms of hepatitis C?

    Many people with hepatitis C do not have symptoms and do not know they are infected. 

    Symptoms
    fever (temperature of 38°C or higher)feeling tiredlack of appetitejoint painupset stomachvomiting (throwing up) dark urinegrey-coloured pooyellow skin and eyes

    If symptoms occur with acute infection, they can appear anytime from 2 weeks to 6 months after infection.

    If symptoms occur with chronic infection, they can take many years to develop. When symptoms appear, they often are a sign of advanced liver disease.

    How is hepatitis C diagnosed?

    The only way to know if you have ever had hepatitis C is to get a blood test, called a hepatitis C antibody test. This test looks for antibodies to the hepatitis C virus. If you get infected, antibodies are released into your bloodstream. Antibodies stay in your bloodstream, even if you get rid of the virus. Find out where to get tested.

    • A positive or reactive hepatitis C antibody test means you have been infected with the hepatitis C virus at some time.
    • A positive antibody test does not always mean you still have hepatitis C.
    • Another blood test called an RNA test or PCR is needed to determine if you are currently infected with hepatitis C.

    Hepatitis C virus strains (or genotypes)

    There are different strains of the hepatitis C virus. These are called genotypes. In New Zealand, it is estimated that of those infected with hepatitis C virus:

    • 55% have genotype 1 (which is further divided into genotype 1a and 1b)
    • 35% have genotype 3
    • 8% have genotype 2
    • 1% have genotype 4 or 6.

    It used to be important to know the genotype as it used to determine which treatment option was best. We now have a funded treatment called Maviret that treats all genotypes (pangenotypic treatment).

    How is hepatitis C treated?

    The main aim of treatment for hepatitis C is to cure the infection, if possible, thereby stopping the virus damaging your liver.

    Maviret
    A medicine called Maviret is used for the treatment of hepatitis C. It aims to clear the hepatitis C virus from your body. This treatment has a cure rate of more than 90% with 8 weeks of treatment regardless of the type or genotype. Before starting Maviret, you will have tests to assess how much scarring present in your liver.

    • If there is no severe scarring (known as cirrhosis) in your liver, you will be prescribed a course of Maviret tablets (usually taken as 3 tablets once a day for 8 weeks).
    • Some people may need to take Maviret for longer (12 weeks).  
    • Maviret tablets can be prescribed by your GP but is only available from some pharmacies. Read more about Maviret tablets (including how to get your supply).

    However, there are some situations where using Maviret tablets is not suitable and/or you should be cared for in a specialist clinic, eg, if:

    • you have severe liver disease
    • you also have hepatitis B infection
    • you are HIV positive
    • previous treatment for hepatitis C has failed.

    In these circumstances, the specialist will supervise your treatment. After treatment, you may stay under specialist follow-up because for some people there is a risk of developing liver cancer even many years after the virus has been cured.

    What can I do to help my recovery?

    • Reduce your alcohol intake. Ongoing moderate to high alcohol intake speeds up liver damage. Talk to your doctor about counselling and support to reduce alcohol use.
    • Avoid social drugs, supplements or herbal products as some may cause further liver damage.
    • For tiredness and fatigue, consider lifestyle changes to reduce stress, enhance diet and improve fitness.

    How can I prevent hepatitis C infection?

    Although there is currently no vaccine to prevent hepatitis C, there are things you can do to avoid becoming infected or re-infected and prevent the spread of hepatitis C virus.

    Hepatitis C is not spread through food or close personal contact such as handshaking, hugging and kissing. Hepatitis C is spread when the blood from an infected person enters the bloodstream of an uninfected person. To avoid this happening:

    • do not share needles or other equipment to inject drugs or any other substances
    • do not use personal items that may have come in contact with an infected person’s blood such as shavers or toothbrushes
    • avoid touching blood or open wounds
    • avoid sexual practices that might risk blood contact including trauma, during menstruation, or in presence of genital ulcers.

    Learn more

    Hepatitis C Ministry of Health, NZ
    Hepatitis C The Hepatitis Foundation of NZ
    Hepatitis C Healthy Sex, NZ

    References

    1. Hepatitis C management in primary care has changed BPAC, NZ, 2019
    2. Hepatitis C treatments Pharmac, NZ, 2019
    3. Hepatitis C Ministry of Health, NZ, 2019

  • HEPATITIS B

    By

    Hepatitis B (pokenga ate) is a virus that causes inflammation of your liver.

    On this page, you can find the following information:

    Key points

    1. Hepatitis B virus is spread through contact with the blood or other body fluids of an infected person. The virus attacks your liver cells causing either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) hepatitis.
    2. Acute hepatitis infection can make you feel unwell, but most people recover fully. It is important that you protect others from becoming infected. 
    3. A simple blood test can establish whether you still have the hepatitis B virus in your blood or whether you have been able to successfully get rid of the virus. 
    4. Chronic hepatitis B is when you test positive for the hepatitis B virus for more than 6 months after your first blood test result. This means that your immune system was not able to get rid of the hepatitis B virus and it still remains in your blood and liver. The symptoms of chronic hepatitis B are less noticeable. Treatment is focused on preventing long-term liver damage. Read more about chronic hepatitis B.
    5. One of the most effective ways to avoid getting hepatitis B is to get the hepatitis B vaccine. This is part of the childhood immunisation schedule. Older children and adults can also be vaccinated. 

    How is hepatitis B spread?

    Hepatitis B is spread through contact with the blood or bodily fluids (such as saliva and semen) of an infected person. 

    Ways in which hepatitis B is spread
    Through unprotected sex including anal or oral sex.Through tattooing or body piercing with unsterile equipment.By sharing injection equipment, toothbrushes or razors.Through a needle stick injury.From mother to child during childbirth.

    Hepatitis B is not usually spread through:

    • sharing food and utensils
    • kissing on the mouth
    • coughing or sneezing everyday contact, such as in a school or workplace
    • playing contact sports, as long as wounds are covered and you remove yourself from play to attend to any injuries involving blood
    • breast milk
    • urine, poos or vomit, unless these contain blood.

    What are the symptoms of hepatitis B?

    Symptoms can appear anywhere from 6 weeks to 6 months after becoming infected, often after 2–3 months. Some people do not have any symptoms, but others can have symptoms such as:

    • feeling sick or vomiting
    • lack of appetite
    • flu-like symptoms, such as tiredness, general aches and pains, fever or muscle aches
    • stomach pain
    • pale, clay-coloured poos and or dark coloured urine
    • yellowing of your skin and eyes (known as jaundice).

    Who is at risk of hepatitis B?

    Anyone can get hepatitis B, but those most at risk are:

    • babies born to mothers who have hepatitis B
    • people with multiple sex partners
    • men who have sex with men
    • people with a sexually transmitted infection (STI)
    • people who inject illegal drugs
    • people who use unsterile equipment for tattooing
    • people who live with someone who has hepatitis B
    • healthcare and public safety workers exposed to blood at work
    • people having kidney dialysis
    • travelers to regions with intermediate or high rates of hepatitis B
    • people who participate in contact sports where there is high risk of bleeding injury
    • people aged 25 years or over who are of Māori, Pasifika or Asian ethnicity
    • people born in Asia or the Pacific Islands.

    Children are at greater risk of chronic hepatitis.

    Most people with chronic hepatitis B infection were infected as babies (from their mother at delivery) or as young children (from playing with infected children or close contact with an infected family member).

    Children who have the disease usually develop a mild illness, but sometimes they’ll have no symptoms. They are more likely to continue to carry the virus (called hepatitis B positive). Many years later, they may develop liver damage and cancer. For this reason, all infected children require long-term follow-up.

    When adults are infected, they usually become sick with acute hepatitis (jaundice, abdominal pain and vomiting), but are at much less risk of developing chronic hepatitis.

    How is hepatitis B diagnosed?

    Hepatitis B can be diagnosed with blood tests to detect the presence of the hepatitis B virus or antibodies to the virus. During the early stages of acute hepatitis B blood tests may show changes in your liver function.

    If you are at higher risk of getting hepatitis B, get tested. If you are pregnant, you should also get tested as part of antenatal blood testing. Read more about hepatitis B and pregnancy. 

    If you are in one of these high risk groups, get tested for hepatitis B:
    Māori, Pasifika, South East Asian or Chinese ethnicityaged over 30 yearsunsure if were vaccinated against hepatitis B as a childborn in a country with high rates of hepatitis B or travelling to these countries, such as the Pacific Islands, China, South East Asia, Middle East and Africayour mother or close family or household member has hepatitis Byou’ve had unprotected sex with an HBV-infected personyou are a current injecting drug user or injected drugs in the pastyou’ve had tattoo, piercing or other cosmetic procedures using unsterile equipment in locations with few safety standards, such as in prisonyou engage in higher risk sexual activity, such as sex work, men who have sex with men, unprotected sex while travelling in a country with high Hepatitis B prevalenceyou’ve come into contact with blood, through sports, assault, needle stick injury, etc.

    If you test positive for hepatitis B infection, you must take steps to reduce the risk to your sexual partners and others in your household. It’s a good idea for sexual partners and people living in your household to also be tested.

    How is hepatitis B treated?

    For acute hepatitis B infection, most people manage with support from their family doctor.  

    For chronic hepatitis B infection, some people may need treatment with antiviral medication. These medicines do not get rid of the virus but they reduce how much the virus multiplies. They help prevent complications such as cirrhosis, liver failure and liver cancer, and also help prevent you passing on the infection to others. Read more about chronic hepatitis B infection

    How can hepatitis B be prevented?

    Vaccination

    One of the most effective ways to avoid getting hepatitis B is to get vaccinated.

    • The hepatitis B vaccine is part of the childhood immunisation schedule in New Zealand and consists of 3 injections over 3–6 months.
    • All babies should be vaccinated.
    • Older children, adults and travelers can also be vaccinated. Ask your doctor or nurse what is right for you.

    Read more about the hepatitis B vaccine. 

    Other ways to reduce your risk of getting hepatitis B

    • Never share drug equipment with other drug users. This includes needles, syringes, spoons and filters as well as bank notes or straws to snort cocaine.
    • Do not share personal items such as toothbrushes and razors.
    • Use a condom during sex, including anal and oral sex.
    • Have an STI check before you have unprotected sex with a new partner
    • Limit how much alcohol you drink. Read more about safer alcohol limits.
    • Make sure any blood spills are cleaned up properly – the virus can live on  objects for 7 days or more. Even if you don’t see any blood, the virus could still be there.

    Protect new sexual partners

    If you are a carrier for hepatitis B and have a new sexual partner then they will be at risk of catching it from you. They should be checked for immunity against hepatitis B (likely if under 25 years as they should be protected by vaccination at birth).

    If your partner is not immune, then they can receive a free hepatitis B vaccination which will protect them from getting acute hepatitis B. After they have finished the course of vaccines (3 over 3–6 months), they should be tested for protective immunity against hepatitis B. Until then, you and your partner should use condoms to prevent hepatitis B infection.

    Where do I go for a sexual health check-up?

    • Your GP.
    • Family planning clinics (find a family planning clinic).
    • Sexual health clinics have specialists who are experienced in the management and diagnosis of sexually transmitted infections. Each visit is confidential and the people there can help with testing your sexual partners or family members. For some people, the consultation may be free. Find a sexual health clinic

    Support for people with hepatitis B

    The Hepatitis Foundation of NZ provides a follow-up programme for people with hepatitis B. This is free and their community nurses help follow-up people in the community, through home visits, to provide education and support to individuals and families. 

    Learn more

    Hepatitis B The Hepatitis Foundation NZ
    Hepatitis B     The Immunisation Advisory Centre, NZ
    Hepatitis B Ministry of Health, NZ 
    Hepatitis B Healthy Sex, NZ

    References

    1. Hepatitis B – treatments now available for primary care BPAC, NZ, 2018
    2. Hepatitis B Ministry of Health, NZ  

    Resources

    Support

    Brochures

    Hepatitis B – information guide

     Hepatitis B – information guide

    Ministry of Health, NZ, 2012

    Hepatitis B & the vaccine

     Hepatitis B & the vaccine

    Hepatitis Foundation, NZ, 2018

    Childhood immunisation booklet

     Childhood immunisation booklet

    Ministry of Health, NZ, 2019

    Hepatitis B and C

     Hepatitis B and C

    Department of Corrections and Ministry of Health, NZ, 2013

    Hepatitis B – personal record

     Hepatitis B – personal record

    Ministry of Health and Health Promotion Agency, NZ, 2014

    Videos

     Hepatitis B videosVideo explaining hepatitis including the symptoms and the importance of the hepatitis B vaccine to prevent spread.

    Related topics

    HepatitisHepatitis AChronic hepatitis BHepatitis C | Pokenga huaketoOverview of contraception methods | Rongoā ārai hapūtangaVaccinesTravel health tipsPeginterferon alfaBACK TO TOPCredits: Health Navigator Editorial Team . Reviewed By: Jacqui Stone, Nurse Practitioner, Middlemore Hospital and Lucy Mills, Clinical Nurse Specialist, Middlemore HospitalLAST REVIEWED: 23 AUG 2019PAGE LAST UPDATED: 10 JUN 2022